Analyse the scale and severity of the challenges created by transboundary pollution (TBP).

Discuss the economic challenges that global interactions have created for different countries and communities.

Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part A markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. 

Transboundary pollution may be a short-lived event or more pervasive problem involving movements of polluted bodies of air or water across national boundaries.

Possible themes include:

• The scale may vary from relatively localized issues affecting border areas, eg transboundary aquifers, to problems affecting entire world regions, eg smoke from forest fires in Indonesia affecting southeast Asia.
• Some pollution events have global-scale impacts, eg Fukuyama isotopes crossing the Pacific.
• Acid rain is a commonly occurring issue.
• Carbon emissions and climate change are valid themes in this context.
• The severity of any challenges is determined by the type of pollution and the scale/nature of the area affected and the vulnerability of people/places.
• Political challenges include arriving at stakeholder agreement on any action.

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to provide a structured systematic analysis of the severity of different types of challenges (environmental to political). Another approach might be to analyse the varying scale of each challenge (mortality may be relatively localized, with weaker dispersed effects evident on a larger scale).

Full marks may be obtained through use of a single case study provided there is sufficient analysis of the varying scale and severity of the associated challenges.

For 4–6 marks, expect some weakly evidenced outlining of one or two problems / challenges / impacts.

For 7–9 marks, expect a structured, well-evidenced analysis of:

• either a range of challenges created by one or more types of TBP
• or the varying severity and geographical scale of different TBP challenges.

For 10–12 marks, expect both of these traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part B markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• economic migration and its impacts on job availability
• global shift and deindustrialization in high-income countries
• negative economic consequences of outsourcing/offshoring for industrializing countries and communities, eg low rates of pay
• tax avoidance by large corporations and offshoring of profits
• the management of social and spatial inequalities which have grown in part because of global interactions / global shift.

Good answers may synthesize (AO3a) three or more of the above (or other) themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3b) of the statement, which discusses how the challenges are most severe in particular places and at certain scales (eg, US Rust Belt state populations have suffered more than other areas of the US). Another approach might be to discuss how challenges lessen or become more severe over a longer timescale (eg, post-industrial cities in high-income countries have been redeveloped and regenerated on account of global shift). A good discussion might conclude with a substantiated final judgement on the relative severity of different economic challenges.

For 5–8 marks, expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes.

For 9–12 marks, expect:

• either a structured synthesis that links together several well-evidenced themes from the Guide
• or a critical conclusion (or on going evaluation) informed by geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 13–16 marks, expect both of these traits.

This was the second most popular question. There were many satisfactory answers focused on proper examples of transboundary pollution. Candidates had often thoroughly revised the topic and used good supporting evidence of forest fires in Indonesia or issues arising from the 2011 Fukushima nuclear meltdown. Many answers were extremely detailed, making the scale and severity of the pollution very clear.

The best answers used the words scale and severity repeatedly, with sustained use of supporting evidence. They also understood the difference between an impact and challenge, allowing them to analyse the geopolitical and legal dimensions of transboundary pollution, not merely the numbers of deaths and asthma attacks.

It was disappointing to see so many candidates using the antiquated example of Chernobyl rather than the more contemporary Fukushima incident. The latter also lends itself well to analysis due to its coastal location and the way transboundary pollution occurred via the ocean, a global common. However, the Chernobyl TV series has understandably caught the imagination of a new generation of learners. If teachers continue to use this study, however, it would be good to encourage candidates to focus their learning on the geography of the pollution event rather than the sometimes lurid details of the meltdown incident.

Most candidates provided a satisfactory answer to this question by linking together three or four economic challenges or issues. Popular themes included trade conflict between the USA and China, the global shift of manufacturing work, tax avoidance by large companies and the costs of managing Covid-19.

Examples were often detailed, with some clear explanation of the challenges which particular governments or groups of citizens have experienced.

Occasionally, the role of global interactions was only implied rather than explicit. For example, candidates described the challenges that the USA and China now face because of increased tariffs. However, the link with global interactions was unclear. They were unable to explain the global interactions that gave rise to the latest wave of protectionism in the first place. In other words, only part of the story was being told.

Another weakness appearing in some answers was a tendency to write about business challenges while ignoring the phrase "countries and communities" in the question. It would have been self-evident to these candidates that businesses belong to particular countries and communities but it would have been helpful if they had justified the inclusion of material dealing with business challenges more securely.

Analyse reasons for the recent and widespread rise of anti-immigration movements.

Discuss ways in which global financial flows can be affected by the actions of governments.

Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part A markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

Anti-immigration movements take many forms in different countries and contexts. Recently, many different local movements have developed globally (eg, from Australia to South Africa). In Europe there is a loose international alliance of localist movements. Reasons differ from context to context and encompass economic (work), social (housing) and cultural (religious) issues, amongst many others.

Possible reasons for the recent and widespread rise of anti-immigration movements:

• Recent cultural and religious changes that are linked with increased cultural diversity.
• Economic issues, including the availability of work.
• Increasing numbers of people on the move for various physical, economic, demographic and political reasons.
• Widespread pressures on governments around the world in relation to the refugee crisis.
• Recent political concerns linked with terrorism and radicalization, and the actions of powerful governments/personalities that may fuel anti-immigration sentiments.
• The use of social media to promote anti-immigration messages.
• The recent tension between nationalism/localism and increased globalization.

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to provide a structured systematic analysis of the different possible reasons that explain the recent rise in migration and resistance to it, drawing on contemporary evidence. Another approach might be to analyse the widespread / global nature of these movements, and the common themes that help explain their existence (weaker responses will focus on case studies in an ‘episodic’ way and will neglect to address the ‘widespread’ spatial manifestation of the issues they describe).

For 4–6 marks, expect some weakly evidenced outlining of one or two reasons why anti-immigration movements exist.

For 7–9 marks, expect a structured, evidenced analysis of:

• either a range of reasons (two or more) why anti-immigration movements have arisen recently
• or reasons for the widespread occurrence of anti-immigration movements in many different contexts.

For 10–12 marks, expect both of these traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part B markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Financial flows include trade, capital movements, aid and debt payments and remittances. These flows can be increased or decreased according to the political frameworks they must operate in at varying scales. Governments may be national but there are also local governments and multi-governmental organizations to consider too. Actions include incentives but also penalties and sanctions.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• The political opening-up of emerging economies (India, China) with new markets for exploitation.
• National investment rules and laws that allow TNCs to deploy (or not) financial strategies such as mergers and acquisitions and joint ventures.
• Political actions to establish lower production costs for TNCs in export processing zones.
• MGOs creating the opportunity to operate within trading blocs with low tariff barriers.
• Political decisions by governments to opt out of globalization / global data flows (eg, US technology companies cannot invest or sell their services easily in China).
• Political decisions by governments to provide aid and loans.
• Political decisions by governments affecting migration, which in turn fosters remittances.

Good answers may synthesize (AO3a) three or more of the above (or other) themes in a well-structured way (AO4).

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3b) of the statement, which discusses how government actions connect and interact with the financial decisions of other stakeholder eg TNCs. Another approach might be to critically discuss how financial flows linking particular places might be either increased or decreased. Another approach might be to discuss the relative importance of government actions at different scales. A good discussion may conclude with a substantiated final judgement on the relative importance or significance of different kinds of action.

Do not over-credit a detailed discussion of the actions of non-governmental stakeholders (TNCs, NGOs, etc.) unless the account is logically linked with government actions and attitudes (e.g. discussion of how governments allow or disallow FDI, free trade etc.).

For 5–8 marks, expect weakly evidenced and/or imbalanced outlining of two or three relevant themes.

For 9–12 marks, expect:

• either a structured synthesis that links together several well-evidenced themes from the Guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) informed by geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 13–16 marks, expect both of these traits.

Question 1 was by far the most popular on the paper. The overwhelming majority of candidates experienced no difficulty obtaining a middle or upper mark-band score through the delivery of a satisfactory account of hostility against migration in one or more countries. Great use was made of contemporary examples and political movements in the UK, USA and France especially. The best responses were accurate, detailed and were able to engage with the issues in an academic and objective way.

There was a tendency among some weaker candidates to offer more sensationalist, generalized and less well-evidenced accounts of the politics of Donald Trump or the Brexit political movement. In a small number of cases, candidates wrote about xenophobic nationalism so carelessly that it raised concerns that these might be their own views rather than objective reporting of hate-fuelled politics. Candidates are reminded to take great care when carrying out an analysis of sensitive issues.

The main reason why relatively few candidates obtained full marks in this question was neglect of the phrase "recent and widespread rise" in the question. Too often, answers were focused on events in one or two countries and whilst the detail was excellent no explicit mention of the wider global context was made. The best candidates, in contrast, understood that the question was providing them with an opportunity to analyse how, in recent decades, globalization has accelerated at such a rapid rate that many individuals and societies have felt compelled to react against it. Hence the rise of populist movements is a recent and widespread phenomenon.

This question was focused on global financial flows and governments. Popular themes included international aid, the imposition of taxes and tariffs, and legal frameworks for foreign direct investment, including the establishment of special economic zones. Together, these three themes were sufficient for a high mark to be awarded provided sufficient evidence had been provided and a strong focus maintained on the role of government.

Weaker candidates typically failed to provide much evidence or to maintain a strict focus on the actions of governments. Thus, they were able to write about businesses and their investments overseas but could say very little about how this was linked with government actions. Similarly, candidates who discussed import taxes affecting trade often wrote at great length about movements of commodities without mentioning the reciprocal financial flows which trade generates.

The best answers reaching the highest mark band were able to provide a proper discussion of what might be meant by "the actions of government" - for example, they were able to establish a link between policies designed to manage migration and the linked impact this can have on remittance flows. They were therefore able to distinguish between direct and indirect effects on financial flows. In some cases, the best answers explored government actions at different geographic scales, ranging from city councils through to the European Union and other intergovernmental organizations. Finally, some very good answers
discussed the power balance between the actions of governments and businesses, for example in relation to tax havens.

Explain the strengths of the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals as a way of supporting the human development process.

“Economic challenges are the main cause of opposition to globalization.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?

Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part A markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

The focus should be on what the SDGs’ criteria are, and why there is inherent value in this approach to setting goals using diverse criteria. The UN Sustainable Development Goals make use of 17 social, economic, environmental and political criteria. Their strength derives (i) from this holistic/multi-strand approach to understanding the human development process (i.e. their theoretical/philosophical/ontological merit) and (ii) the way they can be used as targets to guide and measure development progress (i.e. their practical/empirical value).

Possible strengths include:

• the inclusion of climate and biodiversity goals/targets
• the highlighting of gender as an important issue
• the primacy of poverty and hunger alleviation
• the way countries and regions can monitor progress towards these goals
• the way the SDGs provide the global community with a ‘shared roadmap’ or blueprint for development (prior to marking, this can be viewed at: https://sdgs.un.org/goals).

Do not credit explanation of weaknesses or failures of the SDGs (or the concept of development) – the question clearly does not ask for those elements to be explained on this occasion. Any such material should be marked as ‘irrelevant’.

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to provide a structured systematic explanation of firstly the philosophical/contextual value of the SDGs and, secondly, their practical/goal-orientated usefulness. Another approach might be to explain different types of goal (social, economic, environmental and political criteria) and the strengths of this holistic approach.

For 4–6 marks, expect some weakly-evidenced outlining of the SDGs and/or human development.

For 7–9 marks, expect a structured, evidenced explanation of:

• either different dimensions of the human development process that are included in the SDGs
• or the practical value/strength of using multiple criteria to generate targets and measure outcomes.

For 10–12 marks, expect both of these traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part B markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Opposition to globalization movements can take many forms. Economic challenges and injustices stemming from global shift, immigration or neo-colonialism may give rise to different forms and strengths of opposition. However, non-economic concerns with sovereignty and cultural identity are important foci for opposition too; also, environmental concerns such as climate change and biodiversity losses.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• actual and perceived costs of economic migration for places (4.2)
• winners and losers of free trade (4.3)
• accusations of economic harm linked with work of global lending institutions, and ideas about neo-colonialism (and before this, colonialism) (4.1, 4.2)
• cultural imperialism and cultural change (5.2, 5.3)
• sovereignty threats (6.1)
• environmental costs of globalization (6.2).

Material focused on political or trade barriers to globalization should explain their origin i.e. how these barriers are a result of anti-globalization opposition or movements. Material dealing with physical barriers (isolation, relief) will most likely need to be marked as irrelevant.

Good answers may synthesise (AO3a) three or more of the above (or other) themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3b) of the statement, and the extent which economic challenges have primacy in the debate in different place contexts. Another approach might be to critically evaluate different kinds of cultural/social interaction which have occurred independent of economic changes, and the extent to which these may be a main cause of opposition to globalization. Another approach might be to evaluate the extent to which perspectives may vary on whether economic changes and challenges are actually real or perceived. A good discussion may conclude with a substantiated final judgement on the overall importance of economic challenges.

For 5–8 marks, expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes.

For 9–12 marks, expect:

• either a structured synthesis that links together several well-evidenced themes from the Guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) informed by geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 13–16 marks, expect both of these traits.

This was the least popular question. Candidates attempting it generally produced merit-worthy answers that competently addressed the two main elements of the question, namely the Sustainable Development Goals and their role in supporting human development (viewed at global or more local scales, or both). Some candidates approached the task from an ethical and moral viewpoint which analysed the merits of the goals which the United Nations has sought to pursue, including gender equality and greater care for the environment. Others approached the task from a more practical viewpoint by analysing the importance of formal development targets and goals (in order for progress to be made, and for governments to be held accountable).

A significant proportion of answers, however, were side-tracked in one of two ways, resulting in a lower mark than might have been expected. Firstly, some wrote at great length about the weaknesses of the Sustainable Development Goals, no doubt reflecting ways in which teaching and learning about the topic was originally carried out. Some candidates had perhaps rehearsed a model answer about the strengths and weaknesses of the Sustainable Development Goals as part of their revision. The question, however, directed candidates to focus their analysis differently, and this needed to be reflected in answers. Little credit could be awarded for material dealing with the weaknesses of the Sustainable Development Goals unless it also contained some creditworthy analysis of what is meant by the "human development process". Secondly, some candidates wrote at great length about a range of ways in which the United Nations supports human development in different countries and contexts. However, the material was only very loosely linked, if at all, with the Sustainable Development Goals.

Here, candidates often neglected to define what "opposition" might mean at the outset of their essay. Political resistance to global interactions is a key theme appearing in the geography guide. This gives rise to many different opposition movements in varying countries and contexts. While such subject matter ought to have formed the basis for the discussion, many candidates treated the word "opposition" as if it were a synonym for "barrier". Candidates have previously been asked questions about barriers to globalization, and it was all too apparent that many viewed this year's Question 3(b) as an opportunity for them to reproduce a rehearsed answer from memory. Unfortunately, some themes, such as physical barriers to global interactions or poverty as a limiting factor, were largely irrelevant to the discussion and as a result only limited credit could be given.

In contrast, the strongest answers were well focused on opposition movements. Typically, candidates selected a range of geographical themes which sometimes serve as a basis for resistance to globalization, including: concerns over the environment and opposition to global agribusiness (with local food sourcing framed as an opposition movement); resistance to migration and cultural change (many candidates made effective use of case studies of Brexit and Donald Trump's politics); protests against neoliberal policies associated with lending by the IMF and the World Bank.

Analyse how the actions of two global groups or organizations have resulted in countries being more interconnected.

Discuss how different businesses and societies have been affected by the growth of global supply chains.

Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part A markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

Global groups and organizations can include the G7/8/20, OECD, OPEC, UN, EU, IMF, BRICs, WHO among many others. Their actions include rules, incentives and sometimes sanctions and penalties. Interconnectivity may be analysed in terms of economic (trade), sociocultural (e.g. migration), political or environmental interactions.

Possible actions:

• The IMF lends money to states; in return, it usually requires increased participation in free trade.
• EU members have four freedoms of movement and so increased participation in trade, migration, etc.
• OPEC countries agree amongst themselves on how best to participate in global energy trade.
• Decisions made by G-groups and OECD members affect both themselves and non-member countries.

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to provide a structured systematic analysis of different kinds of actions (agreements, sanctions, etc.). Another approach might be to provide a structured systematic analysis of different types of interconnectivity (through trade, migration, data and ideas). Another approach might be to analyse positive and negative ways in which interconnectivity develops (e.g. dependency theory).

For 4–6 marks, expect some weakly evidenced outlining of the actions/influence of one or two global groups/organizations (do not expect balance).

For 7–9 marks, expect a structured, evidenced analysis of:

• either how the actions of two global groups/organizations have impacted on countries
• or ways in which countries can be made more interconnected by global groups.

For 10–12 marks, expect both of these traits.

Additional guidance for omissions or category errors in answers:

• Responses which only include one valid global group/organization may access the 7-9 band provided explicit analysis (AO2) of the concept of interconnected countries features as part of a knowledgeable (AO1) and well-structured (AO4) response.
• Responses which do not make use of valid global groups/organizations (and may instead erroneously use examples of TNCs, etc.) may still access the 1-3 or 4-6 bands provided explicit analysis (AO2) of the concept of interconnected countries features as part of a knowledgeable (AO1) and well-structured (AO4) response.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part B markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Global supply chain growth encompasses outsourcing and offshoring strategies, and the development of sometimes complex networks of businesses / factories / offices / suppliers. Effects may be positive or negative; economic, social, cultural or environmental; short term or long term. These effects are experienced by: businesses (successful TNCs and their suppliers; also failing businesses exposed to global competition); and producer and consumer societies in a range of geographic contexts.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• positive effects for those TNCs (and their shareholders) that use supply chains to great advantage [Guide 4.2]
• negative effects for local forms of economic activity that cannot compete with the low costs of the global supply chain model [Guide 5.3]
• negative effects for local communities where deindustrialization has occurred [Guide 5.3] 
• negative effects for local communities who suffer poor working conditions within global supply chains [Guide 5.1]
• positive effects of affordable products, technology and innovation by TNCs whose success is attributable in part to supply chains, e.g. Apple [Guide 4.3]
• negative environmental effects for societies/communities [Guide 5.2].

Good answers may synthesize (AO3a) three or more of the above (or other) themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3b) of the statement that discusses the effects of global business supply chains on communities in particular places (deindustrialized areas, export processing zones). Another approach might be to discuss ways in which global supply chains have effects on human health and welfare at different scales (local or global). A good discussion may conclude with a substantiated final judgement on the overall balance between different (positive and negative) effects, or for different stakeholders (businesses and societies).

For 5–8 marks, expect weakly evidenced and/or imbalanced outlining of two or three relevant themes.

For 9–12 marks, expect:

• either a structured synthesis that links together several well-evidenced themes from the Guide (with a reasonable balance of effects for businesses and societies)
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) informed by geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 13–16 marks, expect both of these traits.

The most popular choices of global groups and organizations were the United Nations, the European Union, the World Trade Organization and the IMF. Examples such as these were invariably chosen by candidates who had revised thoroughly and were familiar with the content of the Geography Guide. Moreover, the strongest candidates applied their information to produce a thoughtful analysis of international interconnectivity. For example, some candidates emphasized how European countries have become both economically and culturally more interconnected as a result of diaspora growth enabled by freedom of movement.

Once again, a minority of candidates wasted time either criticizing the work of their chosen global group(s) or explaining ways in which interconnectivity might lessen over time. Such material could not be rewarded because it did not answer the specific question being asked. A minority of candidates made a category error when answering this question: they wrote about transnational corporations instead of multi-governmental organizations. In such cases, candidates could still access the middle mark bands provided their answers included a high quality analysis of what is meant by interconnectivity in a global context.

The best answers maintained a sustained focus on global supply chain issues. Popular themes included worker welfare in export processing zones, benefits for outsourcing companies in emerging economies, and health problems for societies adversely affected by poorly-regulated supply chain operations (such as palm oil production in Indonesia). In the middle and lower end of the mark range, candidates typically spent much of their time providing a critique of transnational corporations but with little or no explicit reference to supply chains included. Many answers were harsh in their judgment of cultural imperialism and the diffusion of Western culture through the medium of McDonald's and KFC. However, such material often neglected to make any mention of these restaurants' supply chains. While some credit was nonetheless awarded in such cases, this approach tended to be self-limiting.

Using examples, analyse the links between cultural diversity and cultural hybridity.

“The largest transnational corporations (TNCs) have greater global power than national governments.” Discuss this statement.

Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part A markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. 

Cultural diversity refers to a heterogeneous population and the presence of different religious, linguistic, ethnic groups in a particular place, whereas cultural hybridity refers to a “mix” (or melting pot) of cultural forms, including globalized products, art forms and landscapes. The two may be linked insofar as cultural diversity (the presence of multiple cultural traits and traditions) creates the potential for mixing and hybridity in the absence of constraints (such as apartheid-style segregation of ethnic groups).

Possible analytical themes include:

• different aspects of cultural diversity, including the traits of language, religion, food, music etc.
• places where cultural diversity is high, including global hubs / world cities
• different instances of cultural hybridity, including music, languages
• cultural hybridity as a by-product of economic strategy, i.e. glocalization of products by TNCs
• the growth of cultural hybridity in some culturally diverse places on account of more groups mixing with one another.

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to provide a structured systematic analysis of different facets of cultural diversity and hybridity (food, music, etc.). Another approach might be to analyse ways in which diversity and hybridity are linked in particular places and contexts.

For 4–6 marks, expect some outlining of cultural diversity and/or cultural hybridity. Response is either partial, narrow or lacks supporting evidence.

For 7–9 marks, expect a structured, evidenced analysis of:

• either different examples of cultural diversity and cultural hybridity
• or how the two concepts are linked (how diversity gives rise to hybridity).

For 10–12 marks, expect both of these traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part B markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The largest TNCs are global-scale businesses spanning all industrial sectors(from agribusiness to technology, e.g. Facebook, Amazon, Netflix, Google aka FANG). Global power is a broad concept encompassing both hard and softforms of domination, ranging from military power to cultural and ideological influence (hegemony). The world’s national governments belong to countries ranging in scale from small island territories and city-states to large industrialized superpowers (USA). Many have significant military and economic strength. Some small countries may have great global influence but in narrow ways.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• global core and periphery patterns (1.1)
• powerful countries and global groups (4.1)
• roles of countries and TNCs in global networks and flows (4.2)
• FDI and outsourcing by TNCs, including detailed examples (4.2)
• TNCs and their social responsibility frameworks (5.1)
• cultural landscape and built environment changes (5.2)
• campaigns against TNCs by citizens (5.3)
• tax-avoidance strategies of TNCs (6.1)
• role of national governments in global risk management (6.3).

Good answers may synthesize (AO3a) three or more of these themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3b) of the statement that examines the exercise of power at varying scales (e.g. TNC/state government influence over global, regional or more local issues). Another approach might be to critically examine how power remains concentrated in particular places in many different countries (state capitals, global hubs). Another approach might be to discuss how far either TNCs or national governments can drive different processes such as human development or global political, culture and normative changes.

For 5–8 marks, expect some outlining of two relevant themes. Response is either partial, narrow or lacks supporting evidence.

For 9–12 marks, expect:

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced themes from the Guide
• or a critical conclusion (or on-going evaluation) informed by geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 13–16 marks, expect both of these traits.

This was the most popular question. The majority of candidates gained a 7-9 mark or higher by demonstrating a clear understanding of both concepts, supported with relatively detailed evidence. The majority of candidates provided a focused answer which clearly explained how the two concepts may become linked, typically because diverse places become 'melting pots' where hybrid forms of culture may develop over time. Popular themes included hybrid forms of food and music in contexts where a 'cultural conversation' has occurred. 

The best answers went further with their response by analyzing the strength of the links in different contexts. Some candidates acknowledged that the links would not necessarily be strong in contexts where different ethnic groups live plural lifestyles and do not mix together significantly. Weaker answers typically did not explain any links in a convincing way. For example, one case study was provided of cultural diversity in a world city along with a second case study of a McDonald's menu. These two standalone case studies (with no links written about) provided only a partial answer to the question which had been asked.

A minority of candidates were confused about the meaning of one or both concepts. A relatively common mistake was to view cultural hybridity as a synonym for cultural imperialism. Candidates wrongly wrote about Westernization and the erosion of local cultures as evidence of cultural hybridity.

The best answers provided a systematic discussion of different facets of power, including economic, cultural and political influence. They worked systematically through these facets, comparing and contrasting the power of TNCs and governments at each step. Often, this discussion was supported by the use of subject-specific terminology. A minority of candidates provided an advanced evaluation in which they viewed the statement as a 'false dichotomy' and argued that TNCs often work with governments to enhance the power (and rewards) of both parties, for example in the argument that Disney and Microsoft contribute to the soft power of the USA which in turn benefits the US government.

The weaker answers tended to provide a lengthy description of the actions of one or two TNCs. They asserted that the ability of TNCs to act in certain ways is symptomatic of global power and influence. They then proceeded to write a separate account focused on the military power of named governments. All of which led eventually to the simple conclusion that TNCs and governments both have power. The overall character of such essays was descriptive with only very basic evaluation demonstrated.

Using examples, analyse the reasons why some national governments introduce trade restrictions.

Discuss the local and global challenges that are being created by new communications technologies.

Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part A markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

Trade restrictions include tariffs, quotas, sanctions, etc. The most likely foci are protectionism and resource nationalism (in relation to, for example, rare earths). Contemporary examples could include the USA, China or Bolivia.

Emphasis should be placed on the reasons why national governments seek to restrict trade with some or all nations. These may include:

• the perception that it is economically advantageous to do so (imports may threaten a country’s domestic industries and economic growth)
• evidence that other countries are not “playing by the rules” (e.g., Chinese government support/subsidies for industries runs afoul of WTO free trade rulings) – this may apply to particular sectors only, however
• political reasons / trade embargoes (e.g., USA with Cuba, Iran; sanctions)
• the perception that benefits of free trade do not outweigh harm done to deindustrialized regions and communities
• the political manifestos of elected leaders and parties (possibly in relation to populist or nationalist agendas, and re-shoring promises).

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to provide a structured response based around different categories of reason/rationale (there may be economic, social, political gains). Another approach might be to analyse, in turn, the differing strength and/or scale of trade restrictions (ranging from complete embargo to highly-targeted actions e.g. tariffs on solar panels or processors).

For 4–6 marks, expect some outlining of one or two generalized reasons. Response is either partial, narrow or lacks supporting evidence.

For 7–9 marks, expect a structured, evidenced analysis of:

• either two or more reasons why national governments may restrict trade (e.g. protectionism, geopolitical reasons, sanctions)
• or a wider variety of contexts (e.g. varying industrial sectors, varying scale or strength of restrictions).

For 10–12 marks, expect both of these traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part B markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

New communications technologies may include:

• broadband internet and 4G/5G wireless connections
• social media platforms
• remotely operated drones and networked 3D printers
• online application of artificial intelligence (AI)

A spectrum of local and global challenges exists, ranging from localized social challenges of digital exclusion through to global security concerns linked with new communications technologies (viruses and cyber-attacks).

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• uneven patterns and trends in communications infrastructure and use (4.3)
• threats linked with the shrinking world (4.3)
• cultural imperialism linked with the diffusion of ideas (5.2)
• perceived geopolitical threats to state sovereignty (5.3)
• examples of places where internet freedoms have been restricted (5.3)
• hacking, identity theft and surveillance freedom issues (6.1)
• disruptive innovations, including drones and 3D printing (6.1)
• societal and economic risks stemming from global interactions (6.1).

Credit may be given for an evaluation of the benefits of a technology - provided this is connected logically to a discussion of that same technology’s challenges. Do not credit an account of a technology which is focused solely on its benefits.

Good answers may synthesize (AO3a) three or more of these themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3b) of the statement that discusses the relative importance of different threats and challenges. Another approach might be to critically discuss how different places and stakeholders have been unevenly affected (e.g. issues of digital exclusion for rural societies). Another approach might be to discuss interactions between different technologies creating heightened threats and challenges (e.g. role of AI in disseminating “fake news” via social networks).

For 5–8 marks, expect some outlining of two relevant challenges. Response is either partial, narrow or lacks supporting evidence.

For 9–12 marks, expect:

• either a structured synthesis which links together three well-evidenced themes from the Guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) informed by geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 13–16 marks, expect both of these traits.

Most candidates who attempted this question achieved a satisfactory mark in the 7-9 band. They did so by referencing two or more clearly explained reasons for trade restrictions. Popular themes included: 

the need to protect domestic industries from competition; geopolitical tensions; and moral and ethical reasons (for example, the imposition of trade sanctions in response to human rights abuses).

The highest scoring answers provided sustained evidence to support their chosen reasons, with many candidates making topical reference to recent trade disputes between the USA and China. A minority of answers provided detailed accounts of some unusual examples of trade restrictions, such as the fact that chewing gum cannot be imported into Singapore.

Weaker responses typically failed to identify specific reasons for trade restrictions. They wrote — often at some length — about problems associated with particular types of trade, such as high environmental costs. However, the account lacked an explicit focus on the key word "reasons". Additionally, some answers drifted into a description of migration or investment flows (both of which are sometimes linked with trade patterns but are not the same thing). Some AO2 credit was given in such cases if a strong focus on governance (and the reasons for restrictions) was evident, thereby ensuring that a partial attempt had been made to apply knowledge and understanding to the question asked.

Most candidates were able to distinguish between 'local' and 'global' challenges. Popular 'local' themes included: the loss of employment (due to ICT-supported outsourcing); governance challenges in places where social media use has become linked with increased civil society campaigning (for example, Capitol Hill in the USA); online bullying and manipulation of young people by posts from social media platforms. Popular 'global' themes included: international espionage; tax evasion and identity theft; online recruitment by international militia groups; and the idea that a digital divide exists between some countries, regions and groups of people at both global and local scales. Good answers took care to link all of the chosen themes explicitly with the facilitating role played by the internet and social media. Weaker answers were typically less explicit and described the injustices or problems caused by drone missiles or 3-D printers but without making much reference to digital data flows.

Some answers were largely anecdotal and lacked use of geographical terminology or concepts. In contrast, stronger answers linked their examples and case studies with a range of recognizably learned concepts such as sovereignty, identity, the shrinking world or cultural imperialism. These answers were often extremely interesting and conceptually rich.

A minority of candidates ignored the precise wording of the question and chose to also write at length about the benefits which some technologies bring. Sometimes credit could be given for this. For example, a candidate might explain how problems can arise from social media and then reflects on mitigation measures which could tackle those problems while ensuring that the technology's benefits are still enjoyed by people. This is a creditable evaluative approach. In contrast, material which dealt only with the benefits of a particular technology (such as e-passports) had to be marked as irrelevant in the context of this question.

Explain how microfinance organizations and alternative trading networks can help communities to develop.

Discuss the challenges and opportunities that global superpowers create for other countries.

Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part A markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

Human development is a broad multi-strand concept that has economic, social, cultural, gendered, political and other dimensions for communities.
Microfinance organizations provide small loans (microloans) to individuals, often women; for example, in India and Bangladesh.
Fairtrade is the most well-known alternative trading network.

Microfinance organizations and/or alternative trading networks can support community development:

• Financial resources are transferred to those needing them most.
• Small investments may be sufficient to allow substantial improvements in agriculture.
• Family incomes may rise / become more reliable / no longer be dependent on child labour.
• Children can attend regular schooling/purchase books; education of girls helps tackle gender inequality.
• Health benefits; access to technology; political participation.

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to provide a structured systematic analysis of the different strands of human development that microfinance organizations and alternative trading networks can support. Another approach might be to analyse the effects for different communities and located contexts. Another approach might be to critically analyse similarities and differences in the developmental impacts of microfinance organizations and alternative trading networks.

For 4–6 marks, expect some weakly evidenced outlining of the way microfinance organizations and/or alternative trading networks have helped people/places; or a good account of community development which lacks knowledge of understanding of microfinance and alternative trade).

For 7–9 marks, expect a structured, evidenced analysis of:

• either the actions of microfinance organizations and alternative trading networks
• or human development processes in communities helped by either microfinance organizations or alternative trading networks.

For 10–12 marks, expect both of these traits.

Additional guidance for answers with omissions or category errors:

• Responses which do not distinguish between MF and AT (or omit one) may still access the 7-9 band provided explicit analysis (AO2) of the concept of community development features as part of a knowledgeable (AO1) and well-structured (AO4) response.
• Responses which do not make use of any valid MF and AT examples (and may instead erroneously use examples of TNCs, etc.) may access the 1-3 and possibly 4-6 bands provided explicit analysis (AO2) of the concept of communities becoming more developed features as part of a knowledgeable (AO1) and well-structured (AO4) response.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part B markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant. 

Global superpowers are a diverse group of countries that have disproportionate power and influence compared with other states. Power has different facets – including economic, military (hard power), cultural (soft power) and geopolitical influence.

Alongside the USA, other significant global/regional powers include China, Russia and core EU states (Germany, France). The term “superpower” is contested and a case could can be made for further countries belonging to this category, including India, Brazil, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, etc.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of the diverse challenges and opportunities associated with:

• the actions and strategies of TNCs domiciled in, for example, the USA and China, including inward investment, outsourcing, offshoring and glocalization [Guide 4.2]
• lending and financial aid given to other countries by global superpowers [Guide 4.2]
• global governance / global actions led by powerful countries e.g. action to tackle climate change [Guide 2.3]
• multi-governmental organizations (MGOs) that have been created by, or are strongly influenced by, superpower states [Guide 4.1]
• shrinking-world technologies developed and deployed by the governments, businesses and universities of superpower states [Guide 4.3]
• economic migration and remittance flows [Guide 4.2]
• the economic and demographic characteristics of global superpowers - and their attraction for TNCs domiciled in other states [Guide 4.1]
• conflict and political tensions created by the main global superpowers [Guide 4.1].

Good answers may synthesise (AO3a) three or more of the above (or other) themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3b) of the statement that thoughtfully examines the overall balance of opportunities and challenges. Another approach might be to critically discuss and compare the different opportunities and challenges associated with different types of power (economic influence, ‘hard’ military power, ‘soft’ global cultural influence and geopolitical influence over MGOs). Another approach might be to discuss how the relative balance of opportunities and challenges has changed over time (with challenges increasing recently, e.g. renewed nationalism). A good discussion may conclude with a substantiated final judgement on the overall balance between challenges and opportunities from the point of view of other countries making up the global community.

For 5–8 marks, expect weakly evidenced and/or imbalanced outlining of two or three relevant themes.

For 9–12 marks, expect:

• either a structured synthesis that links together several well-evidenced themes from the Guide 
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) informed by geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 13–16 marks, expect both of these traits.

The majority of candidates possessed a clear understanding of how microfinance works. They were able to support their analysis with carefully-chosen evidence and contexts, such as the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh or KIVA's work in Kenya. Fewer knew the meaning of 'alternative trading network' as it appears in the geography guide. The example of Fairtrade was correctly used by some candidates; unfortunately, a significant number of candidates chose to write about a transnational corporations, such as Facebook, as their example of an alternative trading network. Happily, some credit could still be awarded in such cases provided a strong focus on community development was sustained throughout the answer.

Answers that attained the highest mark band provided detailed evidence of the work done by both microfinance organizations and alternative trading networks, while additionally sustaining a strong focus on the concept of community development. The very best answers thus explained how education, health and other sustainable development goals are met thanks to microfinance and Fairtrade. Many candidates wasted time documenting the weaknesses of microfinance and Fairtrade schemes. The question categorically did not ask for this.

Many candidates who answered question 1 appeared to have been attracted by the part (b) element, to judge by the way they began answered part (b) first before moving on to answer part (a). Most candidates produced a conceptually-informed account grounded in the terminology of hard power and soft power. Moreover, they provided a structured and systematic analysis of economic, political, environmental and cultural challenges and opportunities. Furthermore, their answers were usually well-balanced thereby demonstrating excellent discipline in the art of essay writing. Teachers are commended for developing all of these competencies in learners.

Weaker answers tended to view superpowers as a synonym for 'developed countries' and wrote in general about the challenges and opportunities which the developed countries of the world have created for what used to be called 'the global south'. While such material was usually relevant, a more specific AO2 focus on valid examples of superpower countries was expected for the award of high marks. Equally, candidates who wrote at great length about historic wars often failed to reach the top band. This was because they were unable to provide a wider synthetic understanding of the different ways in which power operates within contemporary global systems.

Analyse the validity and reliability of two indicators of human development.

“Physical geography is the main reason why some places are less connected than others.” Discuss this statement.

Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part A markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. 

Possibilities for analysis include the human development index (HDI), the gender equality index and GDP per capita or infant mortality. One approach might be to analyse two components of the HDI (eg life expectancy and literacy). Another approach might be to analyse the HDI in its entirety along with a second indicator, such as GDP per capita. Either approach is acceptable.

For full marks to be awarded, all of the points raised need not be explicitly categorized as either validity or reliability issues. It is sufficient to provide a wide-ranging critique which infers concern with both reliability and validity.

If more than two indicators are analysed, credit the two which are dealt with best.

Possible issues associated with their use include:

• the accuracy of the data (a reliability issue) and whether they are verifiable
• the comparability of data between countries (a reliability issue), methodological issues (criticisms of GDP or HDI formulae) (a reliability issue)
• the extent to which they genuinely show variations in development, for example HDI is widely viewed as a good measure because it takes into account three different variables (a validity issue)
• varying perspectives on the genuine importance (validity) of what is being measured (eg, money, happiness, gender equality)
• the importance (validity) of a particular measure (eg literacy) because of how it impacts on other aspects of development such as income/happiness.

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to provide a structured systematic analysis which clearly separates validity and reliability issues. Another approach might be to analyse the two chosen indicators using a wider range of critical points with strong supporting evidence and data.

For 4–6 marks, expect some outlining of one or two indicators/measures. Response is either partial, narrow or lacks supporting evidence.

For 7–9 marks, expect a structured, evidenced analysis of:
• either two indicators of human development (dealt with in a balanced way)
• or the issues of validity and reliability (these may be implied rather than explicit; do not expect balance)

For 10–12 marks, expect both of these traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part B markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Physical geography may include consideration of: whether different places are relatively isolated; maritime and continental places; natural resource endowment; various site and climatic factors. Connectivity has multiple dimensions (for example, inclusion in transport networks or internet connectivity). Places can be identified as local areas or states, or at other scales.

Answers which largely ignore/sideline the role of physical geography and instead discuss the role of non-physical factors may still reach Level 9-12 if they meet other mark band criteria well. However, they are unlikely to reach Level 13-16.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• importance of oil resources for connected OPEC states (4.1)
• connected global superpowers and reasons for this (4.1)
• economic migration rules and connectivity of destination states (4.2)
• global data flow patterns (4.3)
• natural resource availability (4.3)
• geographic isolation at varying scales (4.3)
• networking via microfinance (5.1)
• cultural diffusion between places (5.2)
• global diaspora (5.2)
• protectionism and trade restrictions (5.3)
• implications of global shift or reshoring for connectivity (6.2-6.3).

Good answers may synthesize (AO3a) three or more of these themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3b) of the statement which discusses the extent to which physical factors are most important in different places and contexts. Another approach might be to critically discuss the relative importance of physical and human influences on connectivity at the national or more local scale (eg, isolated rural areas within well-connected states). Another approach might be to examine changes in relative importance over time and the possibility that physical barriers might be overcome.

For 5–8 marks, expect some outlining of two relevant themes. Response is either partial, narrow or lacks supporting evidence.

For 9–12 marks, expect:

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced themes from the Guide
• or a critical conclusion (or on-going evaluation) informed by geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 13–16 marks, expect both of these traits. 

Popular indicators of development chosen by candidates included the Human Development Index, Gross Domestic Product per capita, the Gender Inequality Index and life expectancy. The majority provided satisfactory outlining of their chosen measures as part of their response. In some cases, a good analysis of validity and reliability was additionally provided. The former was usually dealt with by explaining the broad value and importance of each chosen measure. In particular, candidates pointed out that Gross Domestic Product per capita provides an important guide to the wealth of nations and the ability of governments to provide education and health care, which are universally valued services. The most popular themes pertaining to reliability included concerns with the accuracy of data and issues arising from the use of crude averaging. Weaker responses scoring between 4 and 6 marks showed little or no understanding of what is meant by validity and reliability in relation to development indicators.

This essay title lends itself well to synthetic writing: most candidates were able to link together a series of case studies showing why different countries or local places are more or less connected than others. The best answers selected their evidence carefully in order to provide a balanced review which gave equal weighting to physical and non-physical factors. Typically, an account was provided of landlocked states and isolated islands; these examples were then contrasted with politically-isolated societies. Weak answers (scoring between 5 and 8 marks) tended to lack specific details and instead presented generalized ideas about the difficulties of communicating with "mountainous places". In contrast, high-scoring answers reaching the top markband added a conceptual framework to their discussion. For example, some candidates discussed the validity of the statement at varying scales. They wrote about isolated countries such as North Korea but also included far more localized examples, including particular towns such as Todmorden in the UK, where local sourcing of food has meant relatively fewer food commodity movements. In this case, the reason for reduced connectivity is a civil-society sustainability movement, as opposed to physical geography.

Using examples, explain how two types of financial flow connect different places together.

“The environmental costs of global economic growth outweigh the social gains.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?

Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part A markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

Financial flows link places, societies and environments together to varying degrees and at varying scales: a good geographical response may explain links between particular urban or rural localities in addition to international linkages. One flow can generate multiple connections / links / interdependencies, which could be economic, social, cultural or political in character. Flows between places are sometimes asymmetric (one-way flows, for example the sending of aid) or more balanced (two-way flows, for example remittance flows accompany migration in the other direction, with both flows connecting together host and source countries).

Possible themes include:

• Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) by transnational corporations (TNCs) — links are economic but may become cultural too, as cultural traits are exchanged alongside flows of money and commodities (particular local places may become highly connected e.g. export processing zones)
• global trade in financial services — particular trading centres / cities / hubs (Zurich, Singapore) may become especially well connected (flows may also connect two hubs within the same country (New York and Los Angeles)
• international aid, loans and debt relief – aid may be targeted at particular places inside countries e.g. disaster relief aid flows; the connections are economic but also political (this can be a soft power strategy used by some states to build friendship with other countries)
• global/international flows of migrant remittances — linking together local-scale places (e.g. particular cities and rural villages) within different countries.

Credit material dealing with trade in commodities (where return flows of money from sales/profits can be inferred) if the account serves to further the geographic analysis of how places become connected together by flows.

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to explain connections at varying scales (local places and states, for example). Another approach might be to provide a structured systematic explanation of the different kinds of connection which the two chosen flows create (migration can foster economic, cultural and political linkages for example). Another approach might be to analyse the strength/symmetry of the connections (for example, analysing the relative strength and significance of migration and remittance flows for two linked countries).

For 4–6 marks, expect some weakly-evidenced outlining of one or two flows (most likely using narrow supporting evidence such as a very basic or general remittance or trade study)

For 7–9 marks, expect a structured, evidenced explanation of:

• either the connectivity which is fostered by the two chosen financial flows (may begin to explain cultural and political connections in addition to economic connections)
• or the varied dimensions/geography of place connectivity (e.g. explains connections at different national and more local scales, or asymmetrical connections).

For 10–12 marks, expect both of these traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part B markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Environmental costs stem from industrialization, agribusiness, transport, urbanization — i.e. the totality of economic growth and development. Global economic growth can be viewed as the rise over time in global gross domestic product (GDP) per capita and increased industrialization/urbanization. Social gains of economic growth include improved life expectancy, health and diet; access to education; and changing social attitudes e.g. empowerment of women and minority groups.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

Environmental costs:

• Global shift of polluting industries and transboundary pollution (6.2)
• Food production system and agribusiness issues (6.2)
• Localized pollution and waste (Unit 3)
• Climate change impacts (Unit 2)

Social gains:

• Improved HDI scores (5.1)
• Gender equality progress (5.1)
• Affirmative action is support of diversity (5.1)
• Progressive cultural changes e.g. attitudes towards the environment (6.3)

Do not credit poorly focused writing about environmental benefits and/or social costs — the question does not ask for these to be debated. Any such material may be marked as ‘irrelevant’ if its inclusion cannot be justified (e.g. see point below about differing perspectives).

Good answers may synthesise (AO3a) three or more of the above (or other) themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3b) of the statement, and the balance of costs and gains in particular place contexts (for example in relation to global shift). Another approach might be to critically evaluate different environmental costs (climate change, transboundary pollution, biodiversity loss, etc.) and the extent to which they are experienced at local and/or global scales. Another approach might be to evaluate differing perspectives on whether social changes are viewed as ‘gains’ or problems (such as the spread of cultural traits via social media). Another approach might be to evaluate the possibility of problems being mitigated (new technologies and changing attitudes). A good discussion may conclude with a substantiated final judgement on the overall balance of newly-created and solved problems.

For 5–8 marks, expect weakly-evidenced and/or imbalanced outlining of two or three relevant themes.

For 9–12 marks, expect:

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced themes from the Guide
• or a critical conclusion (or on-going evaluation) informed by geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 13–16 marks, expect both of these traits.

This question was well-answered in the majority of cases. Candidates analysed the statement using case studies of financial flows, sometimes augmented with their own personal knowledge of cryptocurrencies or online purchasing. The best answers used evidence well and were fully focused not only on financial flows but also on connectivity between places. Remittances were written about by many. There was also widespread analysis of outsourcing investment and the role that the internet plays supporting FDI strategies by TNCs. Wherever possible, credit was awarded for work which focused on legitimate global flows, such as sales of goods and trade movements, that in turn generate transfers of profit or sales payments.

The most thoughtful answers correctly developed their responses in ways which highlighted the connectivity between different places that financial flows often foster. For example, the best answers dealing with remittances were able to explain that financial connectivity between migration host and source countries can be a starting point for cultural and even political connectivity. Other good answers analysed the concept of place at a variety of geographic scales. For example, remittance flows between eastern and western Europe have helped to connect individual countries together within the European Union; at the same time, remittance flows can link together rural and urban localities within a single country.

The two examples below are typical of the contrast which existed between answers reaching the top mark band (10-12) and answers which did not [Using examples, explain how two types of financial flow connect different places together]. While example B contains more recalled migration facts than example A, it does not analyse connectivity between places nearly as well. In example B, the words "place" and "connection" are not used at all.

Example A (extract from response reaching the 10-12 mark band)

"India receives billions of dollars of remittances from its diaspora population of 23 million people each year. Remittances sent from local places like east London can then be used by the migrants' families to help pay for their mobile and phone services, like those provided by BharatNet in rural India. This further increases connectivity between different local places, allowing even more exchange of ideas and information."

Example B (extract from response reaching the 7-9 mark band)

"Another major financial flow today would be remittances. There is an influx of people migrating to different countries where there is higher pay. This is prevalent in the Middle East especially in Qatar with its hosting the 2022 World Cup. They have attracted many migrants to work in the construction industry. The migrants who moved to Qatar contribute to its economy. Every year billions of dollars are earned in this way."

This question asked if the environmental costs of global economic growth outweigh the social gains. The best answers did three important things. Firstly, they provided a discussion focused on environmental costs and social gains without deviation into lengthy discussion of environmental benefits and social costs, neither of which are strictly part of the discussion. Secondly, they focused on the global dimension of the question, for example by writing about the global-scale growth of the middle class, or global progress towards the Millennium Goals and Sustainable Development Goals. Thirdly, they provided a proper evaluative conclusion, for example by noting that some of the economic harm done may yet be reversible if action is taken quickly enough (and the social gains of education mean there are more scientists than ever before who can work to provide solutions). Whatever position is taken, the hallmark of a high-scoring answer is an evaluative discussion which goes beyond simple listing of impacts and can provide a more sophisticated weighing-up of evidence.

In contrast, weaker answers omitted any global-scale overview of the issues and instead listed a series of local environmental problems. Popular themes included air pollution and oil spills. Often, there was very little explicitly said about social gains other than rising incomes. Some candidates provided lengthy descriptive case studies dealing with social challenges created by the global economy, such as the Rana Plaza disaster. Little credit could be awarded to these studies if they were presented as standalone items with no justification for their inclusion in a response that is meant to focus on social gains.

Using examples, analyse ways in which international economic migration has been affected by political decision making.

“The economic gains associated with global development outweigh any cultural losses.” Discuss this statement.

Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part A markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. 

Political decision making encompasses the actions and laws of national governments (both host and source regions), along with other international frameworks for the regulation of economic migration, such as EU or Mercosur free migration and employment rules. International migration flows include those between close neighbours (such as the US and Mexico) but also much longer distance movements. The effects are likely to be explored mainly in terms of the size of flows but there are other possible dimensions (gender, age, skills, etc).

Do not credit analysis of remittance flows as this is not asked for.

Possible effects on migration attributable to governance at varying scales include:

• individual host country rules and laws for economic migration
• MGO (e.g. EU) migration rules and decision of national governments to participate in multi-scale governance
• possible role of source country government actions, decisions and conditions
• the consequent size and other characteristics (e.g. gender, skills) of international/global migration flows
• global governance of migration (UN frameworks – global compact for migration).
  

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to provide a structured systematic analysis which clearly separates decision making about voluntary and forced migrants. Another approach might be to analyse political decision making at a range of scales (national government, MGOs, UN).

For 4–6 marks, expect some outlining of one or two links between government policies and international migration flows. Response is either partial, narrow or lacks supporting evidence.

For 7–9 marks, expect a structured, evidenced analysis of:

• either two or more ways in which international migration has been affected by host country government decision making
• or political decision making in contrasting places (e.g. host and source country) or at varying scales (state governments and MGOs).

For 10–12 marks, expect both of these traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part B markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Global development may be seen as a holistic set of economic and societal changes. Development processes operating at national scales collectively comprise “global” human development, helped in part by transnational initiatives like the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). 
Economic gains may be measured collectively (global and national GDP per capita data) though these maybe unevenly spread between and within countries.
Cultural losses may include harm to indigenous culture. Perspectives differ on this and not all losses may be seen as such by all people. 

Economic losses and environmental changes should not be over-credited because the material is likely to be of marginal relevance to the task set.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• global economic growth, new superpowers and lending institutions (4.1)
• the growth of global trade and connectivity (4.2)
• links between human development and social changes (gender equality) (5.1)
• microfinance and economic growth (5.1)
• cultural diffusion between places (5.2)
• changing cultures and cultural landscapes (5.2)
• concerns with migration and cultural change (5.3)
• anti-globalization / tribalization movements that value national self-determination ahead of economic connectivity (6.1)

Good answers may synthesize (AO3a) three or more of these themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3b) of the statement that discusses the extent to which economic gains exceed non-economic losses in different places. Another approach might be to discuss the distribution of who gains most (and has lost most) at transnational, national or more local scales (e.g., powerful global elites may make disproportionately large economic gains while losing relatively little culturally). Another approach might be to critically discuss varying perspectives on what constitutes a cultural loss.

For 5–8 marks, expect some outlining of two relevant themes. Response is either partial, narrow or lacks supporting evidence.

For 9–12 marks, expect:

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced themes from the Guide
• or a critical conclusion (or on-going evaluation) informed by geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 13–16 marks, expect both of these traits.

The best answers carefully adopted an analytical framework which looked at the question from a variety of perspectives. For example, in their introductions they identified that decisions are made by source and host country governments alike, and policies can be designed which either increase or stem the flow of migration. Additionally, decision making can be unilateral or multilateral depending on whether a national government has signed up to an intergovernmental agreement which allows for the free movement of people, as is the case for the European Union.

Candidates scoring 7-9 marks typically described two contexts in considerable detail. Popular case studies included the post-Brexit European Union and the US–Mexico border. It was pleasing to see widespread use of these contemporary case studies. Other widely-applied case study contexts included Singapore, UAE and Australia.

Candidates sometimes misspent their time by writing at length about global flows other than migration (notably remittances and international capital flows linked with TNCs). There were several accounts of Chinese polices aimed at encouraging inward investment which failed to make any meaningful link with international movements of people. Limited credit could still be awarded provided a satisfactory focus on political decision making had been sustained.

This was the least popular question on the examination paper, and many of the candidates who attempted it lacked a clear conceptual overview of what the phrase 'global development' means. Some candidates produced an essay comprising of two main case studies — for example, the colonization of Australia and China's treatment of Tibet. In both cases, the candidates correctly described some cultural losses and injustices. However, two historical case studies alone cannot provide a contemporary overview of global development in line with the aims of the question.

In contrast, the best answers adopted a broader global overview and were able to synthesize a range of themes including: the growth of the BRICs; the new global middle class; global trade and investment flows and patterns. They were also able to discuss the concept of cultural loss at a global scale, for example by documenting aggregate losses in the number of languages spoken around the world. The best answers also avoided spending too much time describing the contents of McDonald's menus and K-pop playlists.

Analyse the ways in which cultural traits are spread from place to place.

Discuss the relationships between globalization and human development.

Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part A markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

Cultural traits are the varied facets of a culture, including language, religion, cuisine, music, dress, etc. The most likely focus is national–cultural identity but ethnicity, religion and local cultures are creditable also.

The spread of cultural traits involves both the diffusion and subsequent adoption/use of new ideas, attitudes, tastes and behaviours. Culture spreads in numerous ways, including:

• diffusion of cultural traits carried by migrants and diaspora groups
• ideas spread by social networks, data flows and “shrinking world” processes
• TNC consumption networks and the cultural changes they bring
• the past cultural imperialism of colonizing states, which led to the widespread diffusion and adoption of Western culture(s)
• the sometimes complex ways in which cultural ideas spread from place to place on account of glocalization/hybridization processes (without which the adoption of new tastes/ideas/fashions/languages might not happen).

Do not credit material which dwells on resistance to, or consequences of, cultural change. This is irrelevant to the clearly-directed question which has been asked.

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to provide a conceptually-informed analysis of how cultural spread (both diffusion and adoption) happens (utilizing concepts such as cultural imperialism, hybridization, etc). Another approach might be to analyse in turn colonial/imperialistic/“hard power” mechanisms and neo-colonial/“soft power” strategies.

For 4–6 marks, expect some outlining of ways in which different aspects of culture have spread/travelled spatially/globally. Response is either partial, narrow or lacks supporting evidence.

For 7–9 marks, expect a structured, evidenced analysis of:

• either how a range of cultural traits have spread/diffused to specific places by various means (involving technology, migration, trade etc)
• or specific concepts/processes/mechanisms which further our understanding of how and why culture/cultural traits are spread spatially.

For 10–12 marks, expect both of these traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part B markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Human development, like the MDGs/SDGs, includes economic, social/cultural and political elements. Globalization is similarly a multidimensional concept. Many links and connections can therefore be established between the two concepts and their associated processes. The relationships are often viewed as positive but can in fact be complex; some highly developed societies may reject globalization. Globalization has not always had beneficial developmental impacts for all individuals and societies.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• globalization indices and their component parts (4.1)
• global trade and economic networking of places (4.2)
• developmental implications of data flows and trends (4.3)
• multidimensional human development (5.1)
• TNC responsibility frameworks (5.1)
• developmental implications of cultural change (5.2)
• rejection of globalization by civil society (5.3)
• societal and economic risks stemming from global interactions (6.1).

Good answers may synthesize (AO3a) three or more of these themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3b) of the statement which discusses the relative importance of different globalizing processes for human development. Another approach might be to critically discuss how human development in different places may have been affected in positive or negative ways. Another approach might be to discuss interactions between different globalizing and developmental processes, or the global power relationships that can help/hinder global development.

For 5–8 marks, expect some outlining of two relevant themes. Response is either partial, narrow or lacks supporting evidence.

For 9–12 marks, expect:

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced themes from the Guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) informed by geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 13–16 marks, expect both of these traits.

The majority of candidates attempted this question. The evidence suggests they did so because cultural geography is a topic they find interesting and are therefore well-informed about. Many candidates wrote several pages describing in considerable depth the movements of migrant populations and the global spread of fast food and Disney films. In many cases, these answers scored between 7 and 9 marks. Although richly detailed, some responses lacked the conceptual awareness which tended to be a hallmark of top band answers. Marks of 10 and above were typically given to candidates who analysed not only how cultural traits are moved from place to place, but also how they subsequently "take root" (mirroring what happens when plant life spreads, cultural traits must also take root as part of the spreading process). The best answers recognized this and analyzed the varied ways in which the actual adoption of language, religion and other cultural traits is achieved in difficult places (alongside diffusion mechanisms). They were able to apply their knowledge of concepts such as cultural imperialism, globalization and soft power while carrying out a sophisticated analysis of the geographical spread of culture over time.  

The majority of candidates demonstrated a clear understanding of what is meant by globalization and human development. Often, the essay began with an extended introductory paragraph defining the two ideas. Many candidates were able to gain between 9 and 12 marks by producing a series of linked paragraphs which explained a sequence of relationships. Popular themes included economic development (related to outsourcing and foreign direct investment) and aspects of social development (such as improved health and longevity, linked with the work of the World Health Organisation). Some candidates explained ways in which gender equality can be promoted by global flows of ideas and information, which is an important theme. 

The command word "discuss" ideally required candidates to think critically and provide an evaluation of possible relationships. One way in which this was achieved involved discussing a reciprocal relationship, whereby the development of individual countries might allow them to participate more fully in globalization. Candidates who took this approach were thus able to discuss two different causal relationships (how globalization promotes human development; and in turn, how human development promotes globalization). Alternatively, some candidates chose to discuss positive and negative relationships between globalization ad human development. However, candidates sometimes struggled to put forwards a convincing argument that globalization may impact negatively on human development. This insecurity manifested itself in frequently-heard phrases such as "outsourcing of textile manufacturing to Bangladesh has led to industrial injuries which has interfered with the human development process". The use of the word "interfered" is symptomatic here of unsure argument. The maltreatment of workers in rapidly industrialising (and previously subsistence) societies does not provide evidence that national development is being "reversed" as many argued. A more thoughtful, critical and nuanced argument was required. 

Using examples, analyse ways in which global interactions can lead to improved gender equality.

Discuss the opportunities and challenges that global interactions create for different transnational corporations (TNCs).

Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part A markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

Gender equality between men and women is manifested in varying ways, including income and earnings, access to education, political representation and personal freedoms.

Possible links between global interactions and improved gender equality:

• Cultural diffusion via global media and social networks (equality as an increasingly ‘global’ social norm – in relation to the workplace, gender roles in the home, or other areas of life).
• Economic opportunities for women linked with economic interactions, including microlending and work provided by TNCs (outsourcing and offshoring).
• TNC social responsibility for frameworks and examples of affirmative action.
• Global social media puts spotlight on certain issues, eg Boko Haram, which can spur action.
• Possible correlation between globalization indices (Kearney) and gender indices.

Do not credit a discussion of lessened gender equality; this is not asked for.

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to provide a structured systematic analysis of how different global interactions / flows / processes (information, investment, agreements) lead to improved gender equality. Another approach might be to analyse, in turn, direct actions and indirect influences (such as films and social media).

For 4–6 marks, expect some weakly evidenced outlining of two instances of increased gender equality on account of global interactions. Responses that neglect the gendered aspects of inequality are unlikely to reach this level.

For 7–9 marks, expect a structured, evidenced analysis of:

• either a range of different gender equality improvements
• or a range of different global interactions linked with improved gender equality.

For 10–12 marks, expect both of these traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part B markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

TNCs are a diverse group of businesses, including energy, heavy industry, electronics and media providers that operate across national boundaries. The discussion could vary according to the type of company being discussed (eg media or manufacturing companies). The opportunities and challenges relate primarily to access to new markets, but there are also practical, cultural, ethical, political and technological opportunities and challenges to discuss – though ultimately all are linked with the bigger economic picture of profit. The discussion may focus on transnational corporations acting alone or in partnership with outsourcing suppliers as part of production networks.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:
Opportunities:

• The growth of emerging economies and new markets for exploitation.
• The opportunity to successfully deploy strategies, such as glocalization, mergers and acquisitions, and joint ventures.
• Lower production costs in export processing zones and low wage economies, either through offshoring or outsourcing.
• The opportunity to operate within trading blocs with low tariff barriers.
• The opportunity to maximize profits through tax avoidance strategies.

Challenges:

• The challenges of anti-globalization movements / renewed to local production
• The challenge of global campaigns eg against plastic packaging of products
• The challenge of national trade restrictions, including protectionism.
• Physical and human supply-chain risks and the need to re-shore activity.
• Disruptive new technologies, including 3D printing and cyber-attacks.

Good answers may synthesize (AO3a) three or more of the above (or other) themes in a well-structured way (AO4).

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3b) of the statement that examines the balance of opportunities and challenges for different kinds of TNC. Another approach might be to critically discuss how opportunities and challenges exist in particular places rather than being global in scale. Another approach might be to discuss the relative balance of opportunities and challenges changing over time (with challenges increasing recently, eg renewed protectionism). A good discussion may conclude with a substantiated final judgment on the overall balance between challenges and opportunities.

For 5–8 marks, expect weakly evidenced and/or imbalanced outlining of two or three relevant themes.

For 9–12 marks, expect:

• either a structured synthesis that links together several well-evidenced themes from the Guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) informed by geographical concepts and / or perspectives.

For 13–16 marks, expect both of these traits.

Using examples, analyse the links between globalization and the rise of nationalism in some countries.

Examine the spatial pattern of environmental impacts associated with different global flows.

Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part A markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

Nationalism can assume different forms, eg, protectionism, anti-immigration policies and demonstrations, military action, etc. In the past nationalism was associated with expansion and empire building; today it may be linked with a retreat from globalization (and associated sovereignty issues).

Some credit must be given for material which analyses the rise of anti-globalization/isolationist movements at more localized scales, such as Occupy, local food sourcing movements, long-established Amish communities, etc.
Case studies such as these may include relevant explanations of why globalization has prompted the rise of reactive movements within some countries. However, valid instances of nationalism must also be included for Bands 7-9 and 10-12.

Possible reasons and examples include:

• concerns that globalization has not led to “a good deal” for native citizens (USA since 2016)
• “resource nationalism” and the expatriation of profits by TNCs (Bolivia)
• concerns with migration and cultural change (UK/Brexit)
• the impact of global information flows on national language and culture (France)
• the “dilution” of sovereignty on account of MGO membership (EU populist movements)
• large-scale anti-Western political movements in particular nations eg Boko Haram in northeast Nigeria (though not always strictly “nationalist”, credit should be given for material linking globalization with so-called “tribalization” politics).

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to provide a structured systematic analysis of opposition different facets of globalization (trade, migration, media, etc). Another approach might be to analyse different manifestations of nationalism (civil society action as opposed to government policies).

For 4–6 marks, expect some outlining of one or two instances of contemporary nationalism. Response is either partial, narrow or lacks supporting evidence.

For 7–9 marks, expect a structured, evidenced analysis of:

• either why nationalism is linked with globalization in two countries
• or different forms/aspects/types of nationalism.

For 10–12 marks, expect both of these traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part B markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Global flows include movements of goods, people, data and capital (and investment). Environmental impacts – at local, regional or global scales – can be wide ranging, encompassing: pollution of water, air and land; biodiversity issues and agribusiness impacts; climate change projections. Consideration of impact patterns may include uneven regional impacts (eg, for waste exporters/importers in the global core/periphery), spatial diffusion patterns for transboundary pollution, localized/linear pollution along shipping lanes, etc.

Responses which describe detailed environmental problems caused by global flows/growth/development, yet fail to address any pattern of these impacts (other than asserting that ‘everywhere’ or 'more places' are being affected) are unlikely to progress far into Level 9-12 and should not be awarded a Level 13-16 mark.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• global core and periphery patterns (1.1)
• major global networks and flows (4.2)
• illegal waste movements (4.2)
• growth of TNC supply chain networks (4.2)
• natural resource patterns and interactions (4.2.1)
• cultural landscape and built environment changes (5.2)
• transboundary pollution patterns (6.2)
• shipping lane pollution (6.2)
• global shift of polluting industries (6.3)
• global agribusiness systems (6.3).

Good answers may synthesize (AO3a) three or more of these themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.
Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3b) of the statement which examines patterns at varying scales (global, regional or more local patterns). Another approach might be to critically examine how the different global processes give rise to more evident impact patterns than others.

For 5–8 marks, expect some outlining of two relevant themes. Response is either partial, narrow or lacks supporting evidence (or neglects ‘pattern’ entirely).

For 9–12 marks, expect:

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced themes from the Guide
• or a critical conclusion (or on-going evaluation) informed by geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 13–16 marks, expect both of these traits.

Although only a minority of candidates attempted this question, many of those who did wrote excellent answers which demonstrated an impressive awareness and understanding of current affairs. Candidates frequently analysed the rise of populist movements in Europe and the USA. Their answers were often highly detailed and well-focused on the ways in which new manifestations of nationalism may reflect a partial or full rejection of globalization. Important themes included: the loss of sovereignty; unchecked migration flows; and the costs and benefits of the global shift of manufacturing for communities in developed countries. Another popular topic was the rise of resource nationalism in Latin American countries including Bolivia and Venezuela. Benefit of the doubt was given to candidates who wrote about opposition to globalization but showed insecure knowledge of exactly what is meant by nationalism (usually demonstrated by the absence of a definition of nationalism at the beginning of their answer). In such cases, candidates often wrote at length about local civil society opposition to McDonald's restaurants, rainforest removal, shale gas extraction and other issues. All of these place-based movements can be viewed as being "against" globalization in some or other way; however, it is incorrect to always view them as being instances of nationalism. As a result, full credit could not always be awarded for the use of such illustrations. In other cases, candidates wrote about the growth of Isis (Daesh) and Boko Haram -  identifying efforts to establish a religious caliphate as a form of nationalism  in opposition to Western culture. This was treated as a legitimate approach, provided candidates were clear about which countries had been affected. 

Candidate performance on this question was relatively disappointing for the simple reason that the phrase "spatial pattern" was ignored or largely overlooked in almost every case. Given that this was a geography examination, widespread neglect of the question's spatial dimension was most surprising. In other ways, performance was sometimes commendable insofar as candidates were able to document in considerable detail the impacts which have been suffered in particular places on account of industrialization or waste recycling. However, there was little mention of any wider spatial patterns. Similarly, good recall of the Pacific garbage patch and climate change impacts were included in many essays. Unfortunately, the only acknowledgment of there being any spatial dimension to these impacts all too often amounted to the assertion that "everywhere" has been affected. Case studies from the geography guide which did lend themselves well to writing about a spatial pattern of impacts included: transboundary pollution patterns (for example, centred on palm oil production in Indonesia); linear patterns of pollution and biodiversity loss along shipping lanes; and the global core-periphery pattern of polluting industries. Candidates who linked together several detailed case studies of pollution (but only implied there was a pattern or ignored the spatial element altogether) sometimes scored between 9 and 12 marks. However, a requirement of the top mark band was explicit and sustained attention to the spatial pattern of environment impacts, Very few candidates proved able to do this. 

Analyse the reasons why people’s freedom to participate in global interactions varies from place to place.

“The negative environmental impacts of globalization are beginning to lessen.” Discuss this statement.

Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part A markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

Personal freedoms vary according to people’s identities (of gender, ethnicity, religion, age) and locations (democratic or non-democratic states, the presence / enforcement or absence of the rule of law in different rural or urban places). Participation in global interactions has many possible interpretations, including the freedom to use the internet and social media, and freedom to travel globally and internationally, freedom to trade or be involved in other internet / economic exchanges. Ideally, the focus should be on:

• people’s freedom to participate in global interactions (“global freedoms”) rather than freedoms and rights in general.
• the freedoms of individuals within societies (weaker answers may be less explicit about the personal dimension, eg by analysing state protectionism as a 'barrier' to global interactions but failing to show how people’s freedoms are affected).

Possible reasons and place contexts:

• Government and militia controls on personal freedoms in varying contexts.
• National trade restrictions that can affect the different freedoms of people to establish businesses.
• The lack of internet freedom in some places (which civil society groups may have highlighted).
• The implications of surveillance on personal freedoms.
• The impact of anti-globalization movements on the freedoms of supporters of globalization.
• Poverty, gender and age as possible barriers to freedom.
• Religion as a possible barrier, eg the USA’s travel ban on Muslims.
• Not everyone has economic freedom to participate due to poverty.

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to provide a structured systematic analysis of different kinds of freedom and possible barriers to these freedoms (political, economic, cultural, etc). Another approach might be to analyse different kinds of global interaction (internet use, tourism, trade) and barriers to these interactions in specific located countries and contexts.

For 4–6 marks, expect some weakly evidenced outlining of one or two instances of restricted “global freedoms”.

For 7–9 marks, expect a structured, evidenced analysis of:

• either different ways in which people may potentially participate in global interactions
• or the varied reasons why freedoms are, or are not, available in different places.

For 10–12 marks, expect both of these traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part B markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The environmental impacts or risks include transboundary or more localized pollution, carbon emissions and climate change, and broader environmental issues such as biodiversity and ecosystem services losses. These impacts are generally accelerated for societies undergoing industrialization and demographic transition; an argument may be made that post-industrial societies have reduced environmental footprints, although this is debatable (due to the offshoring of pollution and carbon emissions). As “environmental impact” is a broad category, some impacts may lessen over time while others may not. The net environmental footprint of the global economy remains very high despite steps taken by some countries.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• transboundary pollution affecting more than one country
• localized pollution, including impact along shipping lanes
• the carbon footprints of industrializing societies, linked with global flows of goods and resources
• the offshoring of polluting manufacturing industries and the growth over time of environmentally destructive global agribusiness food production systems
• reshoring for economic activity and local food sourcing, and the implications for carbon emissions
• attempts by civil society organizations to raise environmental awareness, with positive results
• TNC corporate responsibility frameworks with environmental protection
• UN Sustainable Development Goals criteria
• global trade slowdown since 2008 and the implications for the environment.

Good answers may synthesize (AO3a) three or more of the above (or other) themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3b) of the statement that discusses different kinds of environmental impacts at varying scales (global, national or more local patterns). Another approach might be to critically discuss the varying timescale of any positive actions and impacts (some actions have achieved greater success than others in recent years). Another approach may be to critically discuss the extent to which developed countries have successfully brought about environmental improvements or have instead offshored their own carbon emissions by interacting with other places (thanks to global shift and global agribusiness). A good discussion may conclude with a substantiated final judgment on the overall level of lessening (or not) at a global scale.

For 5–8 marks, expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes.

For 9–12 marks, expect:

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced themes from the Guide
• or a critical conclusion (or on-going evaluation) informed by geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 13–16 marks, expect both of these traits.

Analyse how interactions between places can be affected by the physical environment.

“New technologies solve more global problems than they create.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?

Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part A markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. 

The physical environment sets parameters that can limit or accelerate interactions between places at varying scales: a good geographical response may analyse interactions between particular urban or rural localities in addition to international interactions.

• The focus should be an analysis of the physical environment’s effects, not a discussion of alternative influences on interactions between countries, such as political isolationism.
• However, credit may and should be given to an analysis of how far physical isolation can be overcome using technology (and the recognition that the role of the physical environment as a limiting factor is often over-stated).
• Only limited credit should be given to highly deterministic answers asserting that climate limits human development (unless any arguments can be substantiated).

Possible themes include:

• natural resource availability
• potentially limiting effects of isolation for rural or mountainous areas, or islands
• the importance of a coastline for trade
• the role of physical factors supporting activities that generate global flows, for example touristic flows
• the role of technology in overcoming isolation
• the importance of transit chokepoints such as Strait of Hormuz.

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to provide a structured systematic analysis of the different aspects of the physical environment that may impact on interactions and connectivity. Another approach might be to analyse the influence of the physical environment at varying scales (local, national and world region scales). Another approach might be to critically analyse how far physical challenges can be mitigated for example by technology. Another approach might be to sequentially analyse different activities that depend on physical environments (tourism, trade, etc.).

For 4–6 marks, expect some weakly-evidenced outlining of one or more ways the physical environment limits or helps human activity (connectivity may only be implied).

For 7–9 marks, expect a structured, well-evidenced analysis of:

• either multiple ways (two or more) in which the physical environment helps and/or hinders spatial interactions
• or interactions in varied place contexts (may consider different scales and/or access to technology).

For 10–12 marks, expect both of these traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part B markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. Credit all content in line with the markbands.

New technologies may include social media, artificial intelligence (AI), drones, crowd-sourcing and surveillance, etc. Credit may be given for a discussion of historical technologies (1990s - internet; 1950s - container shipping) which were ‘new’ in their day provided they are applied to a discussion of legitimate global problems. Global problems may be economic, social, cultural and environmental; short-term or long-term. Some are created by technology, others are solved by them (the content of a good answer should provide some balance, but do not expect a perfect balance). Credit consideration of local/individual problems (such as identity theft, or ‘fake news’ in a particular country’s election) if the answer addresses (or implies strongly) these are issues which the entire global community is facing.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• the shrinking world (4.2)
• isolated societies (4.3)
• supply chain monitoring (4.2, 6.3)
• various kinds of environmental monitoring (6.2, 6.3)
• cybersecurity issues (at a global scale) (6.3)
• crowdsourcing capabilities (at a global scale) (6.3).

Some answers may describe a range of online issues (hacking, identity theft, bullying/trolling etc.) for the citizens of ‘global society’ in general. These are unlikely to progress to the 9-12 band without some located knowledge of actual contexts where these issues are manifest.

Good answers may synthesise (AO3a) three or more of the above (or other) themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3b) of the statement, and the extent to which problems are being created or solved in a planetary-scale context. Another approach might be to critically evaluate different types of technology (ICT, robotics, drones, 3D printing, transport), and the extent to which they each create or solve problems for specific evidenced places - and sometimes do both. Another approach might be to evaluate the extent to which perspectives may vary on whether the changes they cause are viewed as problems or not (such as the spread of cultural traits and memes via social media). A good discussion may conclude with a substantiated final judgement on the overall balance of newly-created and solved problems.

For 5–8 marks, expect weakly-evidenced and/or imbalanced outlining of two or three relevant themes.

For 9–12 marks, expect:

• either a structured synthesis that links together several well-evidenced themes from the Guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) informed by geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 13–16 marks, expect both of these traits.

Answers to this popular question were overwhelmingly coherent and correct. Popular themes included those included in the geography guide, namely countries lacking a coastline and the uneven distribution of natural resources. Many candidates wrote about the landlocked countries of Bolivia and South Sudan. Middle Eastern states such as Saudi Arabia were used as examples of countries whose natural resource endowments have led to them becoming global players in the oil industry. Other themes included: geostrategic locations and the extent to which some countries are located in proximity to important trading corridors such as the Suez Canal, which inevitably leads to a high degree of interaction; the size and location of countries in relation to their neighbours, with certain countries having far higher numbers of bordering neighbours than others, for example China, Austria, Brazil and Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Typically, responses awarded a mark in the 7-9 band provided a simplistic analysis in which landlocked countries do not interact with the rest of the world while countries with natural resources do. In contrast, responses reaching the top 10-12 band were more likely to include a more sophisticated analysis which showed that global interactions are rarely controlled solely by physical factors in a deterministic way. Such candidates typically made mention of Switzerland in their analysis of coastlines to good effect. They explained that a lack of coastline has not prevented Switzerland from interacting on a global scale with financial markets.

This question generated a great many mediocre responses which 'patched' together a series of technological vignettes before concluding that some technologies create problems whereas others solve them. The internet, phones, 3D printing, drones, food technologies and water treatments were popular themes which suited the question context well. The inclusion of three varied case studies was usually sufficient for answers to reach the 9-12 band provided sufficient depth and detail was included, along with a basic evaluation of which technologies are most problematic, and why. Better answers tended to evaluate each technology on a case-by-case basis and to acknowledge steps already taken towards improved governance aimed at optimizing outcomes; they also maintained a strong focus on the global dimensions of any problem, for example by discussing ways in which the misuse of social media by hackers might actually be responsible for increased hostility between different countries and an overall weakening of global geopolitical cooperation.

Weaker responses typically presented some technologies as positive and other technologies as negative, rather than weighing up each technology's strengths and weaknesses. Global problems were often presented as problems occurring in a particular country, as opposed to challenges for the planet and its people as a whole. At times, it was unclear whether candidates had even studied the IB geography course due to the way they drew extensively on sensational social media reporting about nuclear weapons and cyberbullying. Other candidates wrote in the most generalized way imaginable about problems for "people" cause by hacking and identity theft, but without ever identifying any named geographical contexts where these things are actually experienced. Leeway was given to candidates using antiquated examples; however, higher-scoring answers were more likely to use contemporary examples drawn from those candidates' own lifetimes. 

The two examples below are typical of the contrast which existed between band 5-8 and band 9-12 answers to this question [New technologies solve more global problems than they create].

Example A (extract from band 5-8 response)

"Turning now to an example of a technology which creates problems, drones have created many difficulties for different countries and people in recent years. For example traffic had to be halted at Gatwick Airport in England when a drone flew over one of the runways without permission. Drones are also being used to wage warfare and are responsible for thousands of deaths in Afghanistan where the USA has used them. In conclusion this is a technology which creates many problems."

Example B (extract from band 9-12 response)

"Drones are another technology which are used and misused in different ways. On the one hand there is increasing use of drones in disaster zones to locate survivors. China has been using drones in this way since at least 2008, after the Sichuan earthquake. But drones can be used in ways which many people find problematic such as US drone strikes in Afghanistan. This creates a global legal problem because it is unclear whether international laws are being broken."

Analyse ways in which global trade flows can affect the size of national carbon footprints.

“Cultural changes caused by globalization have affected urban and rural places equally.” Discuss this statement.

Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part A markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

Global trade flows encompass movements of food, consumer goods, digital information sales (data) and touristic movements. National carbon footprint sizes are affected by both production and consumption of goods and services. In the context of global shift of industry, views differ on whether the carbon emissions created by the production of an item should be included as part of the footprint size for the producer or consumer country.

Possible ways in which global trade flows affect national carbon footprint sizes:

• Countries manufacturing high volumes of goods for export (e.g. China) have large carbon footprints. 
• Countries rearing large numbers of cattle or growing large amounts of crops (e.g. palm oil) may have high carbon/methane emissions.
• Countries importing large volumes of fossil fuels subsequently use these fuels, emitting carbon.
• The emissions created by the transport of goods may contribute to the national footprint of the country where the company is domiciled/headquartered.
• Data flows can have surprisingly high footprints (e.g. bitcoin trading).

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to provide a structured systematic analysis of how different global flows/movements (different commodities, people, data) can all result in increased carbon emission sizes. Another approach might be to analyse, in turn, direct and indirect responsibility for carbon emissions (e.g. questioning whether the producer or consumer of goods is responsible).

For 4–6 marks, expect some weakly evidenced outlining of one or two different ways in which trade flows affect carbon footprints (most likely the analysis of two different types/aspects of trade flows).

For 7–9 marks, expect a structured, evidenced analysis of:

• either a range (two or more) of different global trade flows / economic activities
• or complex national footprints in a global context (imports, exports, offshoring etc.).

For 10–12 marks, expect both of these traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part B markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The cultural changes brought by globalization include changes to society, language and the landscape. Theories of cultural imperialism/Americanization/McDonaldization view the commodification of everyday life as a highly important cultural change. Urban and rural places in high-income, emerging and low-income countries alike may be exposed to different global flows and interactions, including tourism, trade, migration and social media. However, the degree of influence and its effects varies according to context.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of how:

• diaspora populations increase cultural diversity in places where they have become established, typically urban areas [Guide 5.2]
• TNCs have exported cultural traits globally, including music, language, food and clothing. These changes may penetrate rural areas, not just urban areas [Guide 5.2]
• a digital divide between urban and remote rural areas may limit the latter’s exposure to global flows [Guide 4.3]
• some rural areas are home to groups who voluntarily opt out of globalization and prefer local sourcing of food etc. [Guide 5.3]
• entire countries may be disconnected in some ways from global interactions: both their urban and rural areas may be resistant to cultural change as a result [Guide 5.3]
• economic development may mean the differences between rural and urban core areas lessen in any case, which complicates the analysis [Guide 5.1].

Good answers may synthesize (AO3a) three or more of the above (or other) themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3b) of the statement that discusses the processes of cultural change in contrasting contexts (at different stages of development, or differing degrees of isolation). Another approach might be to discuss the extent of cultural change experienced by different places with varying power to resist particular global flows and interactions. A good discussion may conclude with a substantiated final judgement on the overall degree to which the statement is true given the diversity of different urban/rural places/types.

For 5–8 marks, expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes.

For 9–12 marks, expect:

• either a structured synthesis that links together several well-evidenced themes from the Guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) informed by geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 13–16 marks, expect both of these traits.

This was the most popular question. The strongest answers typically employed three lines of analysis by focusing on (i) productive activities, (ii) the transport of goods and (iii) the possibility of good governance (actions to reduce emissions). At the top end, candidates recognized that carbon footprint measurement becomes difficult on account of the complexity of global supply chains. They understood that the carbon footprint of an iPhone, for example, is shared between many different countries where parts have been sourced from.

In the middle of the attainment range, candidates typically wrote more generally about the carbon emissions associated with a range of different types of activity or transport, including shipping and air traffic. Many struggled to make explicit links between these movements and the carbon footprints of particular countries. Instead, such answers typically asserted the container shipping has led to an increase in the size of carbon footprints for all countries. The weakest answers failed to maintain a sustained focus on carbon footprints sizes and drifted into long descriptions of the problems created by acid rain or transboundary pollution. A surprising number used 'ecological footprint' and 'carbon footprint' as interchangeable phrases throughout their entire answer. 

This would be a good question for centres to make use of when preparing future classes for their examinations. Candidates could work together in groups to identify relevant and irrelevant information for inclusion in a model answer to this question.

The majority of candidates showed good understanding of the concept of culture and were able to apply their ideas in a relevant and meaningful way. The distinction between urban and rural places was clearly appreciated by all but a tiny minority, as might be expected given the importance and centrality of this taxonomy in the discipline of Human Geography. The question provided many opportunities for candidates to apply knowledge from across the width of their course. The most common route involved firstly writing about high levels of cultural diversity in cities due to the presence of transnational corporations and migrants. As a counterpoint to this, most candidates then argued that rural places do not experience cultural changes due to their isolation, or perhaps experience lesser cultural changes linked with the gradual diffusion of shrinking world technologies into rural areas. The best answers took care to distinguish between different types of rural place (in low-income or high-income countries, for instance, or more accessible and remote rural regions). A few answers had interesting things to say about the cultural conservatism of rural societies in some developed countries, especially the USA.

Given that this was the most popular question on the paper, it is very pleasing to see the overwhelming majority of candidates thoughtfully applying a well-chosen range of themes to the question being asked. As per the assessment objectives, essay questions are meant to provide a novel and unexpected context for the application of knowledge and understanding.

Using examples, analyse the influence of diaspora populations on the cultural identity of different places.

Discuss ways in which communications technology can help and hinder human development processes.

Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part A markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

A diaspora is a scattered population of common ancestry or heritage. Widely used examples include the global Indian, Chinese, Scottish, Irish, English, French and Jewish diasporas amongst many others. A country’s diaspora consists of its own overseas citizens, and citizens of other countries who are descended from earlier generations of migrants.

Possible influences of diaspora populations on cultural identity:

• By their presence, diaspora populations increase cultural diversity in particular places where they have become established.
• Diaspora populations may help to modify the culture of particular places as part of a “melting pot” effect; cultural traits including music, language, food and clothing may all be modified by the arrival of migrants and establishment of diaspora communities (US culture can be analysed as a hybrid culture made up of traits contributed by many different diasporas).
• The physical landscape can be modified by the construction of places of worship or specialist ethnic retailers and restaurants.
• The cultural identity of source countries is affected too: tourism in countries such as Ireland caters to the expectations of visitors from the diaspora, possibly resulting in the fossilization of source countries’ cultures.
• Influence may be far greater on particular neighbourhoods than it is on larger-scale cities or regions as a whole through the creation of ethnic villages (but ghettoization could limit cultural influence on other parts of the same local place).

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to provide a structured systematic analysis that clearly analyses different ways in which cultural identity is influenced, including a range of cultural traits. Another approach might be to analyse the influence of diasporas on different countries, including the source country. Another approach might be to systematically analyse different examples of diasporas in varied geographic contexts.

For 4–6 marks, expect some weakly evidenced outlining of the way one or more diaspora populations have influenced local places.

For 7–9 marks, expect a structured, evidenced analysis of:

• either the varied ways in which local cultures have been influenced by the presence of different diaspora populations
• or the influence on local culture of diasporas in different geographical contexts, such as source and host countries

For 10–12 marks, expect both of these traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part B markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Communications technology includes the internet, email and social networks; it is necessary for the functioning of “the internet of things”, drones, artificial intelligence, etc. Human development refers not just to economic growth but also to broader social, cultural and political changes over time. Human development can be studied at a national scale and also at a more local level (development may vary between rural and urban areas of a country, for example). Candidates may have varying interpretations of what “human development processes” may mean and these should be credited wherever relevant. Credit may be given for discussion of transportation networks, though an answer which focuses mainly on transport networks is unlikely to progress beyond the 5–8 band.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• different strands of human development (and the human development index) and ways in which communications could help support literacy, healthcare, etc
• the UN Sustainable Development Goals and the extent to which technology can help support them
• microfinance and alternative trading networks with developmental goals that may rely on communications technology
• the role of TNCs in creating / spreading wealth and the extent to which they rely on communications technology for their functioning and operation
• the role of communications technology in supporting global shifts that have hindered further economic growth in deindustrialized “rust belt” regions
• the role of communications technology in supporting criminal networks and activities with negative effects for people and places
• near-future technological threats for economies, employment and societies, including artificial intelligence (AI) and robotics
• the disruptive effect of drone warfare in some parts of the world.

Good answers may synthesize (AO3a) three or more of the above (or other) themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3b) of the statement that discusses the effects of communication technology on different strands of the human development process (economic, social, political, etc). Another approach might be to discuss ways in which technology helps or hinders development at different scales (local or national), or possible changes over time. A good discussion may conclude with a substantiated final judgment on the overall balance between “help” and “hinder”.

For 5–8 marks, expect weakly evidenced and / or imbalanced outlining of two or three relevant themes.

For 9–12 marks, expect:

• either a structured synthesis that links together several well-evidenced themes from the Guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) informed by geographical concepts and / or perspectives.

For 13–16 marks, expect both of these traits.